This rift widened almost as soon as 'Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was chosen to be the fourth caliph. He also brought the semi-autonomous rulers in various provinces under control, with the exception of the defiant and able Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. Trade has played a role in the spread of Islam since the beginning of the religion. These methods carefully preserved the elaborate science of reciting the Quran - with all its intonations and its cadence and punctuation. No description, however, can fully capture the overwhelming importance of the Quran to Muslims. Photo: A youth in the pilgrim's simple robe reading the Quran. According to the chronicles of the day, the city had 700 mosques, some 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries - one reportedly housing 500,000 manuscripts and employing a staff of researchers, illuminators, and book binders. In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. In Europe, meanwhile, the Arabs had passed into Spain, defeated the Visigoths, and by 713 had reached Narbonne in France. Others prominent in Islamic medicine were Yuhanna ibn Masawayh, a specialist in gynecology and the famous Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi - known to the West as Rhazes. His death is still commemorated every year during the Islamic month of Muharram. Elsewhere, Muslim leaders such as the Mahdi in the Sudan and 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jazairi in Algeria took direct action. During the First Crusade, for example, adherents of the two religions joined together to defend the cities of Antioch (1097 CE) and Jerusalem (1099) from European Crusaders who laid siege to them. The ancient systems of irrigation were destroyed and the devastation was so extensive that agricultural recovery, even in the twentieth century, is still incomplete. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. After the death of 'Umar an advisory council composed of Companions of the Prophet selected as the third caliph 'Uthman, during whose rule the first serious strains on Islamic unity would appear. The cloth trade produced a number of auxiliary exports: gold and silver thread for embroidery, gum from the Sudan for glazing, and needles, looms, and dyestuffs. Some may also visit the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina before returning to their homes throughout the world in the "sudden, glad stillness" of those who have stood at 'Arafat. Pope Urban, hoping to divert the Christian kings and princes from their struggles with each other, and perhaps also seeing an opportunity to reunite the Eastern and Western churches, called for a "Truce of God" among the rulers of Europe and urged them to take the Holy Land from the Muslims. In the thirteenth century still another threat to the Muslim world appeared in the land beyond the Oxus: the Mongols. The Dome was built in 780, while the mosque was completed in 715. This material became the basis for what is called the sunnah, or "practice" of the Prophet - the deeds, utterances, and taqrir (unspoken approval) of Muhammad. Worse than that, . Written in noble language, this Holy Text has done more than move multitudes to tears and ecstasy; it has also, for almost fourteen hundred years, illuminated the lives of Muslims with its eloquent message of uncompromising monotheism, human dignity, righteous living, individual responsibility, and social justice. The coming of Islam saw a general decline in the status of . Photo: Dressed in their simple ihram garments, all pilgrims are equal in the eyes of God. Now he was being treated by his former enemies as a leader in his own right. Photo: Another basmalah in ornamental thuluth script is written in the shape of an oval. Like prayer, zakah is considered a form of worship. The generous terms that the invading armies usually offered made their faith accessible to the conquered populations. Consequently, the Holy Text could only be collected as a single corpus - "between the two covers" - after the death of Muhammad. The Arabs did not surrender easily; al-Andalus was their land too. It is the final revelation, as Muhammad is regarded as the final prophet - 'the Seal of the Prophets.". In the heavens and the earth; Despite the great body of tradition and law, however the practice of Islam is essentially personal - a direct relationship between individuals and God. This work proposed that the ideal city be founded on moral and religious principles from which would flow the physical infrastructure. But at the beginning, when its institutions were responsive to the needs of the people and the state, the Ottoman Empire was a model of administrative efficiency. Hugh Kennedy, The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State, 2001. The Middle East is a colonial invention "serving the West's Eurocentric purpose" to extend its sphere of influence through "civilising" the Orient (Bilgin 2004: 26). If Western influences are important in the Middle East, however, they are by no means paramount. These problems were not unmanageable while Mu'awiyah was alive, but after he died in 680 the partisans of 'Ali resumed a complicated but persistent struggle that plagued the Umayyads at home for most of the next seventy years and in time spread into North Africa and Spain. By the end of the 13th century it had begun to pull even, and by the end of the 15th century it had surpassed both. After an initial success the Muslims were driven back and the Prophet himself was wounded. In Muslim regions, in modern times, the faithful - at the sound of the sunset cannon or the call of the muezzin - break their fast, perform voluntary nocturnal worship (tarawih), and throng the streets in moods that are at once festive and, in the spirit of Ramadan, communal. Establishment of a national home did not imply a Jewish state, the commission said. A Quranic verse in the kufic script, for example, may be written so that it forms the picture of a mosque and minarets. Thank you. It is generally accepted that the Arabic alphabet developed from the script used for Nabataean, a dialect of Aramaic used in northern Arabia and what is now Jordan during roughly the thousand years before the start of the Islamic era. The Alhambra was begun in 1238 by Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar who, to buy safety for his people when King Ferdinand of Aragon laid siege to Granada, once rode to Ferdinand's tent and humbly offered to become the king's vassal in return for peace. The Mansuri Hospital in Cairo, Egypt, was an important teaching hospital in medieval times. Each millet was relatively autonomous, was ruled by its own religious leader, and retained its own laws and customs. Thereunto we give them the pact of Allah and the protection of His Prophet, the caliphs and the believers. But returning to Granada, where cheering crowds hailed him as a victor, he disclosed his turmoil in that short, sad reply that he inscribed over and over on the walls of the Alhambra: "There is no victor but God. But then, in 1380, a new Turko-Mongol confederation was hammered together by another world conqueror: Tamerlane, who claimed descent from Genghis Khan. Islamic law is thus different from any other legal system; it differs from canon law in that it is not administered by a church hierarchy; in Islam there is nothing that corresponds to a "church" in the Christian sense. Photo: This tughra (monogram or insignia) of the Ottoman Sultan Abdu Hamid shows the three elongated vertical strokes which are characteristic of this style. This was the Hijrah - anglicized as Hegira - usually, but inaccurately, translated as "Flight" - from which the Muslim era is dated. By the early years of the twentieth century the Ottoman Empire was clearly in decline and was referred to as the "Sick Man of Europe." The most imposing of the many fortresses built by the Crusaders the elegant Krak des Chevaliers in Syria (top) held out against the Muslims for over a century and a half. A fountainhead of medical wisdom during the Islamic era, al-Razi, according to one contemporary account, was also a fine teacher and a compassionate physician, who brought rations to the poor and provided nursing for them. The first great advance on the inherited mathematical tradition was the introduction of "Arabic" numerals, which actually originated in India and which simplified calculation of all sorts and made possible the development of algebra. The Islamic empire began to expand beyond the Arabian Peninsula after the death of the prophet and founder of Islam, Mohammed, in 632 CE. Dutch, French, English, and Portuguese merchants first arrived in the late fifteenth century, attracted by the wealth that could be acquired in exporting luxury items to the European market, and encouraged by the Mughal and Safavid governments, which desired trade partners to stimulate the . 'Abd al-Malik established a system of postal routes to expedite his communications throughout the far flung empire. As the Muslims were not completely defeated, the Meccans, with an army of ten thousand, attacked Medina again two years later but with quite different results. Ibn al-Haytham, for example, wrote The Book of Optics, in which he gives a detailed treatment of the anatomy of the eye, correctly deducing that the eye receives light from the object perceived and laying the foundation for modern photography. The sublime "Verse of the Throne" is perhaps one of the most famous: God - There is no god but He, All this can be part of the 'umrah or "lesser pilgrimage," often a prelude to the hajj but not an integral part of it. As a result of Arab rule many northern Africans were converted to Islam. Instead, there is the ummah - the community of the believers - whose cohesion is guaranteed by the sacred law. Unlike Western legal systems, the shari'ah makes no distinction between religious and civil matters; it is the codification of God's Law, and it concerns itself with every aspect of social, political, economic, and religious life. [2] While the Black Death's mortality and impact in Europe has received a great deal of attention, the same cannot be said for the case of the Black Death in the Middle East. This tax is often levied and disbursed by the state, but in the absence of a government collecting system it must be disbursed by the taxable Muslims themselves. The caliphate, they say, must remain within the family of the Prophet - with 'Ali the first valid caliph. During this period the Mongols built mosques and schools and patronized scholarship of all sorts. There was also a territorial organization of the empire, at the upper levels of which was a unit called the muqata'ah under the control of a noble or administrator who could keep some portion of the state revenues derived from it. Under 'Abd al-Malik, the Umayyads expanded Islamic power still further. Thus the number 323 was expressed like this: The Egyptians actually wrote them from right to left, but they are set down above from left to right to call g attention to the similarities of the systems. Due to overwhelming content, each of these hubs can be considered a home page of its own. These traditions not only provided the historical context for many of the surahs - thus contributing to their more exact explication - but also contained a wide variety of subsidiary information on the practice, life, and legal rulings of the Prophet and his companions. The Arabic alphabet has twenty-eight letters (additional letters have been added to serve the needs of non-Arabic languages that use the Arabic script, such as those of Iran and Pakistan), and each of the letters may have up to four different forms. The death of Muhammad was a profound loss. Science section features not just Science but also Nature and Technology. Visit BBC Webwise for full instructions. Muslim Heritage - Al-Qayrawan, seat of Arab governors founded in 670, Muslim Heritage - Umayyad Coins (661-750CE). Nothing more fully illustrates the confidence of the small community, as its military power, despite the battle of the Trench, was still negligible. Islam emerged as a new powerful yet a very strong opponent of Christianity. The early rise of Islam (632-700) The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently . And what is after them, 1. Another distinctive Turkish contribution is the tughra, an elaborate and highly stylized rendering of the names of the Ottoman sultan, originally used to authenticate imperial decrees. To the west, they took North Africa, in a continuation of the campaign led by 'Uqbah ibn Nafi' who founded the city of Kairouan - in what is now Tunisia - and from there rode all the way to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. By diverting Turkish strength and blocking the Turkish-German route to the Red Sea and India, the Arab Revolt contributed substantially to the Allied victory, but it did not result in full independence for the Arab lands. When Europe found a new route to India - thus eliminating the traditional transshipment of goods through the Arab regions of the empire, revenues began to fall, triggering inflation, corruption, administrative inefficiency, and fragmentation of authority. By the time 'Abd al-Rahman reached Spain, the Arabs from North Africa were already entrenched on the Iberian Peninsula and had begun to write one of the most glorious chapters in Islamic history. Among his many contributions to optics was the first correct explanation . It was the beginning of the period the Christians called the Reconquest, and it underlined a serious problem that marred this refined, graceful, and charming era: the inability of the numerous rulers of Islamic Spain to maintain their unity. Many also make the sa'y or running, a reenactment of a frantic search for water by Hagar when she and Abraham's son Ishmael were stranded in the valley of Mecca until the Angel Gabriel led them to water in the Well of Zamzam. It was a necessary move, but also difficult - particularly when Ferdinand called on him to implement the agreement by providing troops to help the Christians against Muslims in the siege of Seville in 1248. One was square and angular and was called kufic (after the town of Kufa in Iraq, though it was in use well before the town was founded). Margari Hill, Stanford University January 2009 available in PDF format ( 1.14 MB ). Although such internal conflict was by no means uncommon- the Christian kingdoms also warred incessantly among themselves- it did divert Muslim strength at a time when the Christians were beginning to negotiate strong alliances, form powerful armies, and launch the campaigns that would later bring an end to Arab rule. Photo: Persia's greatest contribution to ornament, gloriously colored enameled tile, faces the dome and stalactite portal of Shaykh Lutf Allah Mosque, built in the early 1600s on Isfahan's vast royal plaza. From the eighth to the eleventh centuries this trade was largely concerned with finding and importing basic necessities- grain, metals, and wood. The Ottomans were not content merely to improve and develop the types of script that they inherited from the Arabs and Persians but also added a number of new styles to the calligrapher's repertoire. With great difficulty, the task was carried out and the first complete manuscript compiled from "bits of parchment, thin white stones - ostracae - leafless palm branches, and the memories of men." So long as they pay the poll tax, nothing but good shall befall them. Architectural monuments spanning a thousand years bear witness to the spread of Islam. Keep it up. Photo: The Mamluks, originally a class of soldier slaves, seized power in Egypt in the thirteenth century and stood fast against the Mongols. The Islam to spread because of the forgiveness of Muhammad that he help the people. Another Semitic script which was in use at about the same time and which is found on inscriptions in southern Arabia is the origin of the alphabet now used for Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia. This status did not apply to polytheists, who could not be tolerated within a community that worshipped the One God. Who would be its leader? Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . His followers at first committed the Quran to memory and then, as instructed by him, to writing. Modern musical scales are also said to derive from the Arabic alphabet. Established by the prophet Muhammad, the religion of Islam unified a diverse cultural region that spans several countries. The military expansions of the earlier period spread Islam in name only; it was later that Islamic culture truly spread, with people converting to Islam in large numbers. Related Suggestions One of the most moving acts of faith in Islam, the hajj is, for those Muslims who can get to Mecca, the peak of their religious life, a moment when they satisfy a deep yearning to behold at least once the Ka'bah - the House of God and the physical focus of a life time of prayer. The text of the Quran was delivered orally by the Prophet Muhammad to his followers as it was revealed to him. This expansion of commercial activity led to other developments too. The amount varied with the importance of the individual noble or administrator, and he could use it as he saw fit. When they saw that the web was unbroken, the Meccans passed by and Muhammad and Abu Bakr went on to Medina, where they were joyously welcomed by a throng of Medinans as well as the Meccans who had gone ahead to prepare the way. The revelations he received at this time and those he did so later are all incorporated in the Quran, the Scripture of Islam. Photo: Pilgrims at the climax of their hajj, "standing" before God at 'Arafat near the spot where Muhammad delivered his farewell sermon. JazakAllah. These struggles were later romanticized and distorted in a wave of books and films on, for example, Gordon of Khartoum and the French Foreign Legion. How did Islam change in the Middle East? Al-Razi, for example, was a philosopher and a mathematician as well as a physician and al-Kindi, the first Muslim philosopher to use Aristotelian logic to support Islamic dogma, also wrote on logic, philosophy, geometry, calculation, arithmetic, music, and astronomy. The Impact of Islam . It enshrines the duty of social responsibility by which well-to-do Muslims must concern themselves about those less fortunate. Earlier, before the Hijrah, the city had sent envoys to Mecca asking Muhammad to mediate a dispute between two powerful tribes. A year after Yarmuk, 'Umar, in the military camp of al-Jabiyah on the Golan Heights, received word that the Byzantines were ready to surrender Jerusalem and rode there to accept the surrender in person. Photo: The Crusader castle at Sidon in Lebanon was abandoned after the final defeat of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Click on these beautiful images & start exploring the theme/value behind it. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak in size and splendor under the sultan called Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566 and was known to the Turks as Suleiman the Law-Giver. Thank you so much for sharing great info :). Does one religion have the monopoly on truth? The Reason Why Some Persons and the Common People Leave a Physician Even If He Is Clever, and A Clever Physician Does Not Have the Power to Heal All Diseases, for That is Not within the Realm of Possibility. Photo: The Hijaz Railway, completed by the Turks in 1908, linked Damascus with Medina, eight hundred miles to the south. Gibbs. The surahs revealed at Medina are longer, often deal in detail with specific legal, social, or political situations, and sometimes can only be properly understood with a full knowledge of the circumstances in which they were revealed All the surahs are divided into ayahs or verses and, for purposes of pedagogy and recitation, the Quran as a whole is divided into thirty parts, which in turn are divided into short divisions of nearly equal length, to facilitate study and memorization. In recent times its enormous deposits of oil have made the Middle East more important than ever. By the end of the 1970s the Arabs, having assumed control of their own destinies, had emerged as full and independent participants in the affairs of the world. The exercise of self-control extends far beyond refraining from food and drink; to make one's fast acceptable to God, one must also refrain from cursing, lying, cheating, and abusing or harming others. The Fatimids built the Mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo - from which developed al-Azhar University, now the oldest university in the world and perhaps the most influential Islamic school of higher learning. Although the House of Wisdom originally concentrated on mathematics, it did not exclude other subjects. It showed that the political consciousness of the Muslim community had reached an important point; its members defined themselves as a community separate from all others. The opposition, however, merely served to sharpen Muhammad's sense of mission and his understanding of exactly how Islam differed from paganism. Nevertheless, the decline continued. Among his works were such titles as An Introduction to the Art of Music, The Reason Why Rain Rarely Falls in Certain Places, The Cause of Vertigo, and Crossbreeding the Dove. The developments in trade, indeed, are among the achievements of the 'Abbasids that are too often overlooked. So, in proportion did sporadic strife between Arabs and Jews. On the death of Mahmud, his sons continued his efforts with a series of reforms called the tanzimat. It impeded private capital . On the next day they proceed en masse to 'Arafat, even farther outside Mecca, and pray and meditate in what is the central rite of the pilgrimage: "the standing" - a few precious hours of profound self-examination, supplication, and penance in which, many say, a Muslim comes as close to God as he can, on earth. The Venetians and Genoese established trading colonies in Egypt, and luxury goods of the East found their way to European markets. This conquest was made much easier by the weakness of the Sassanid Empire, which was wounded by internal conflicts and a lengthy war with the Byzantine Empire. Middle East in the 6th Century CE. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. In innumerable, almost indescribable ways, it is also the central fact of Muslim life. As the Prophet said, "The best of prayers is the prayer of the Day of 'Arafat.". Nizam-al-Mulk was the patron of the poet and astronomer 'Umar al-Khayyam (Omar Khayyam), whose verses, as translated by Edward FitzGerald in the nineteenth century, have become as familiar to English readers as the sonnets of Shakespeare. Psychologists warn that addressing the mental scars caused by the earthquakes should be an urgent priority and that the most severe mental health consequences might not be fully apparent so soon . From the earliest days it has always been recited aloud or, more accurately, chanted. Although the Muslims used force when they met resistance they did not compel their enemies to accept Islam. The single largest Muslim-majority society in the world is Indonesia, whose population of 230 million is 89 percent Muslim. Another significant difference is that the Arabic script has been used much more extensively for decoration and as a means of artistic expression. 'Uthman was accused of favoritism to members of his family - the clan of Umayyah. According to a bibliography of his writings al-Razi wrote 184 works, including a huge compendium of his experiments, observations, and diagnoses with the title al-Hawi, "The All-Encompassing.". The standing is not the end of the hajj, but is the culmination of a Muslim's devotional life. Iran's attempts to spread a populist notion of political Islam regionally and globally . The month of fasting is also joyous. After the death of his grandfather, Muhammad was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. Some regions never fully recovered and the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never fully regained its previous power. 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